Glossary

abrasion

A loss of surface material due to rubbing, scraping, frequent touching, or inexpert solvent cleaning.

Acts of Union

The Acts of Union of 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland.

ad vivum

The Latin term for “from life” or “to that which is alive.”

aiguillette

Braided loops that hang from the shoulder of a military uniform.

à la turque (turquerie)

The term “à la turque,” or “Turkish style,” was used throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to describe a wide range of artistic styles and artforms, from fashion to furniture and even music. For Europeans, the Turkish categorization served as a generalized inspiration for a style perceived as “exotic” and loosely derived from designs sourced from across Turkey and the Middle East. “Turkish” figures in such designs were heavily stereotyped and often sexualized.

ancien régime

The period in French history from about 1650 to 1789 (before the French Revolution). It was characterized by a divine-right absolute monarchy, a society based upon privileges for the rich and well-connected, and the Catholic Church as the religious establishment. The monarchy fell on August 10, 1792, after months of royal intransigence, and the Revolution entered a new more radical phase. King Louis XVI was executed in January 1793.

Apollo knot

Named for the Greek god Apollo, whose depictions in ancient Greek and Roman sculpture, particularly the famous Apollo Belvedere, inspired this Neoclassical hairstyle. The Apollo knot was introduced in about 1826. It was formed with a bun at the top of the head and face-framing ringlets. Increasingly elaborate versions with braids and loops were often shaped with the assistance of wire-framed hairpieces.

artist supplier(s)

Also called colormen and color merchants. Artist suppliers prepared materials for artists. This tradition dates back to the medieval period, but the industrialization of the nineteenth century increased their commerce.

bag wig

An eighteenth-century wig with hair that is tied in back and contained in a small silk sack or cloth bag.

baroque pearls

Named and prized for the beauty of their imperfection, baroque pearls were named after the Portuguese word for imperfection, “barocco,” which went on to define the Baroque era. Baroque pearls have an irregular form, in contrast to the spherical shape common to modern pearls. Their appearance ranges from spheres with some minor undulations to ovoid, teardrop-shaped, asymmetrical, or lumpy.

bezel

A groove that holds the object in its setting. More specifically, it refers to the metal that holds the glass lens in place, under which the portrait is set.

binder

A binding medium holds the paint together, keeping it from separating. Binders often add additional qualities to the paint. Gum arabic, which imparts a sheen, was often used to highlight when incorporated in larger quantities. See also gum arabic.

bob wig

The bob wig was first worn by men in the 1730s as a more casual alternative to the dramatic, full-buttoned court periwig. This informal, short, and bushy style continued to be worn through the end of the century, though it was no longer the height of fashion. See also peruke.

bodycolor

An opaque pigment.

breeched

The occasion when a small boy was first dressed in breeches, or trousers.

brightwork

A type of decorative engraving used on metal objects that is created by making a series of short cuts into the metal using a polished engraving tool that causes the exposed surfaces to reflect light and give an impression of brightness.

Bristol glass

Named for the city of Bristol, England, where it was produced beginning in the eighteenth century, Bristol glass was distinguished by its cobalt blue hue. Its deep yet bright coloring derives from the use of cobalt oxide. Bristol glass was used to make a variety of glass vessels and to ornament jewelry and casework.

British Raj

The period of British rule over the Indian subcontinent, from 1858 to 1947.

bullion

Ornamental braid made from twisted gold or silver thread.

burnished

After paste was applied to adhere vellum to a card support, it would be rubbed with an animal tooth attached to a wooden stick, called a burnisher, to smooth and secure the prepared card or tablet. See also card/prepared card.

cabochon

A style of cutting, typically related to gemstones, that results in a shaped and polished, rather than faceted, form.

cadogan

Hairstyle of a looped chignon, named after William Cadogan (the first Earl of Cadodgan, 1675–1726). It became a popular style among women and men, especially the “macaroni” (dandies) in the eighteenth century.

card/prepared card

Seventeenth-century miniatures were typically painted on a piece of vellum prepared with gesso mounted to a playing card. Also referred to as “tablets” and sometimes table-book leaves, although that was a specific format. See also vellum; table-book leaf. See also burnished.

carmine

Red or purplish-red pigment obtained from the dried bodies of the female cochineal, an insect native to tropical and subtropical America. It is extremely sensitive to light and therefore prone to fading.

carnation

Watercolor laid down on the gessoed ground to add warmth to European flesh tones. A miniaturist would typically prepare a number of different vellum tablets with carnations of varying shades to suit the skin color and undertones of a range of sitters.

cast gallery

Cast galleries display plaster casts or models of ancient Greek and Roman sculptures, eliminating a visitor’s need to travel to view original examples. In mid-eighteenth-century London, the opportunity to study at the Duke of Richmond’s cast gallery, under the direction of the sculptor Joseph Wilton (English, 1722–1803), enabled art students to develop a sense of proportion and design before learning to draw from live models.

chain scales

Small metal rings interwoven to create a mesh, which is worn to protect the shoulders.

chatelaine

French for “lady of the castle,” it was originally a belt hook that held a lady’s keys to the castle. Later, it served as a decorative clip that was suspended from a belt or girdle alongside other pendants, such as watches, seals, portrait miniatures, writing instruments, or everyday essentials.

chemise

A plain, thin white cotton garment with short sleeves and sometimes a low neckline.

cloisonné

Cloisonné enamel is a technique used since antiquity for decorating metalwork with areas of color held in place by gold or silver wire or strips. Cloisonné is so named for the compartments, called cloisons in French, shaped by the metal wires or strips, attached to the metal object to be decorated. These cloisons, or compartments, are filled with colored enamel powder mixed into a paste, to form individual fields of color within each compartment. The object is then fired in a kiln, ground, and polished to produce an intricate design.

contra/counter-enamel

The reverse side or “verso” of an enamel miniature. When enameling on metal, both sides are usually coated with enamel to protect the metal sheet and layers of enamel from warping due to the extreme heat applied during firing, which causes the metal and enamel to expand and contract. Artists often (though not always) signed on the contra enamel.

cords

Twisted or braided three-dimensional rope, often seen on or hanging from the shoulder.

cord tie

A tie that connects to the front of the jacket or hangs loosely.

cornet

The lowest rank of a commissioned officer in the British cavalry.

cravat

A cravat, the precursor to the modern necktie and bowtie, is a rectangular strip of fabric tied around the neck in a variety of ornamental arrangements. Depending on social class and budget, cravats could be made in a variety of materials, from muslin or linen to silk or imported lace. It was originally called a “Croat” after the Croatian military unit whose neck scarves first caused a stir when they visited the French court in the 1660s.

cuirasses

Armor that includes a front and back plate, to protect the torso.

cuirassier

Members of heavy cavalry who wore full plate armor into battle on chargers. There were two full Cuirassier regiments during the English Civil War: Cromwell’s Royal Horse Guards and the Earl of Essex’s Life Guards. The full plate armor worn by cuirassiers was also worn by individual cavalry officers who could afford to commission it, along with the cost of a horse capable of bearing its rider in full plate in battle. The armor was designed to withstand musket balls.

delft

Named for the city of Delft in the Netherlands where it was primarily made, “delft” or “delftware” refers to pottery, typically blue and white, made of tin-glazed earthenware. It was designed to resemble Chinese porcelain, which was highly expensive and sought after. The height of its production was between the mid-1600s to mid-1700s, but it continues to be made today.

devices

Another term for insignia (i.e., a star or cross).

dotted Swiss fabric

A sheer cotton fabric embellished with small dots either by embroidery or flocking.

doublet

A man’s close-fitting jacket that was popular during the Renaissance.

Edict of Nantes

A proclamation issued by King Henry IV of France in 1598 that granted French Protestants, called Huguenots, the right to practice their religion, among other freedoms. Its revocation by King Louis XIV in 1685 caused a mass exodus of Huguenots to majority-Protestant countries like Switzerland and England to avoid imprisonment or forced conversion. See also Huguenot.

egg-and-dart

A motif used in neoclassical architecture and decorative arts, particularly molding and framing, that alternates an ovoid shape with a v-shaped element resembling a dart, arrow, or anchor.

enamel

Enamel miniatures originated in France before their introduction to the English court by enamellist Jean Petitot. Enamel was prized for its gloss and brilliant coloring—resembling the sheen and saturation of oil paintings—and its hardiness in contrast to the delicacy of light sensitive, water soluble miniatures painted with watercolor. Enamel miniatures were made by applying individual layers of vitreous pigment, essentially powdered glass, to a metal support, often copper but sometimes gold or silver. Each color required a separate firing in the kiln, beginning with the color that required the highest temperature; the more colors, the greater risk that the miniature would be damaged by the process. The technique was difficult to master, even by skilled practitioners, leading to its increased cost in contrast with watercolor miniatures.

engine-turned

Engine-turned refers to the process of mechanically engraving an underlying material with intricate, repetitive patterns with more speed and precision than handwork could achieve, using a machine called an engine-turner. Beginning in the 1500s, engine-turners decorated softer organic materials such as wood or ivory, but in the 1770s, a Frenchman named Guillot designed the first engine-turning machine that could engrave metals, which led to the development of the guilloché technique, named for Guillot. Jewelers and casemakers used guilloché to create elaborate, interwoven designs with fine metals laid under glass or translucent enamel, for a rich, jewel-like appearance.

ensign

A commissioned officer of the lowest rank.

epaulette

Ornamental shoulder piece that frequently designates regimental rank. The style of epaulettes vary from simple gold braids to knotted cords with hanging fringe.

facings

Cloth on the collar, lapels, and/or cuffs. In military uniforms, the colors worn are distinctive of specific regiments and rankings.

facture

The artist’s characteristic handling of paint.

falling band collar

A white collar, often with lace along its edges, worn by men and women in the seventeenth century.

False-color Infrared (FCIR)

Images created through digital post-processing by combining and rearranging the color channels of visible and near-infrared images. In the visible image, the Red and Green channels are assigned to the Green and Blue channels respectively, while the infrared image is assigned to the Red channel. The false colors produced can aid in interpretation of media and materials present and inform further scientific analysis, conservation examination, and scholarly research.

fancy dress

The term employed to denote an eighteenth-century version of seventeenth-century Van Dyck dress. See also Van Dyck dress.

fausse montre

From the French term meaning “fake watch,” fausse montre refers to a style of case that replicated the external appearance of a pocket watch, with a stem and bow at the top. In the late eighteenth century, it was fashionable to pair a pocket watch worn on the left with a second watch or a fausse montre case containing a portrait miniature, hair memento, mirror, or other accessory on the right, either suspended from the waist or secured in fob pockets at each side of a man’s waistcoat. In addition to serving as a fashion accessory, a fausse montre case sometimes also cleverly concealed the mementos of a secret affair.

favorite

A royal favorite (or favourite, in British English) was an intimate companion to a monarch. The favorite wielded a large amount of influence with the ruler and was often given a politically significant role as an advisor or cabinet official, either officially or behind the scenes. This term is sometimes applied to royal mistresses or lovers, but the relationship was not always sexual in nature. Despite this, favorites were often controversial and held under suspicion for their perceived undue influence on the king or queen.

fête galante

French for “gallant party.” An artistic representation of elegantly dressed groups of men and women flirtatiously engaged in an outdoor setting. This style was popularized by the artist Jean-Antoine Watteau (French, 1684–1721) and became a hallmark of Rococo art.

fichu

From the French ficher (“to fix”), a fichu is a large triangular or square lace or muslin kerchief worn by women to fill in the low neckline of a bodice.

fleur-de-lys

The fleur-de-lys or lily flower is a stylized symbol of a lily utilized as a heraldic symbol for several European dynasties, but it is most closely associated with the royalty and saints of France. It was also used in the heraldry of the English royal House of Plantagenet. The Great Seal of Elizabeth I, designed by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard in 1584, featured a fleur-de-lys; it was in use from about 1586 until Elizabeth’s death in 1603. Elizabeth claimed the fleur-de-lys not only through her Plantagenet ancestry but as nominal Queen of France.

fluorescence

The reflected visible light produced when painting materials interact with ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Not all materials fluoresce, but the color and intensity of the fluorescence is frequently used to differentiate between original and restoration materials, characterize the varnish layers, or reveal the distribution of pigments across the composition. Also known as ultraviolet (UV) fluorescence or UV-induced visible fluorescence.

foliate

Ornamented with foliage, or leaflike decoration.

Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

A broadly applicable microanalysis method for the identification of paint media classes such as oils, polysaccharides (gum arabic, etc.), proteins (glue and casein tempera), waxes (medium additions and restoration treatments), resins (varnish components), and synthetic media (restoration acrylics). FTIR is also very important for identifying pigments and fillers, and for differentiating closely related compounds (e.g. neutral and basic lead carbonates, both of which may be found in lead white).

freeman

A full member of a trade guild. Freeman status was awarded after the successful completion of an apprenticeship to a master craftsman of the guild.

frizzled

A form of tightly curled hair fashionable in the latter half of the eighteenth century.

frogging

Ornamental braid or coat fastenings consisting of spindle-shaped buttons and loops.

fugitive pigments

Fugitive pigments are not lightfast, which means they are not permanent. They can lighten, darken, or nearly disappear over time through exposure to environmental conditions such as sunlight, humidity, temperature, or even pollution.

furnish

In paper making, furnish refers to the fibers that compose the paper as well as to the mixture of fibers and water that eventually form the paper sheet.

gabled hood

A pointed headdress with a peak or “gable” over the forehead, decorated side panels and a veil in the back.

galloon

A woven or braided trim, typically metallic, commonly used to augment military uniforms and clerical vestments. In the eighteenth century, it was a popular adornment for men’s coats.

gentry

People of an elevated social class, just below the nobility, typically comprised of well-to-do gentleman farmers who were well educated and, generally, financially secure through the inheritance of landed estates.

gesso

A fluid compound of plaster of Paris, gypsum, or chalk mixed with glue. It was used to coat a vellum support to create a smooth surface for paint to adhere.

goldbeater’s skin

A transparent, resilient membrane made from ox intestines, named for its original use as an interleaf between sheets of metal being beaten to produce gold leaf. Portrait miniaturists coated it with size, a glue made from animal hide, to make it temporarily sticky in order to use it to seal miniatures, particularly ivory miniatures, within the case as a protective airtight package.

gouache

Watercolor with added white pigment to increase the opacity of the colors.

graphite

Graphite, or plumbago as it was called in the seventeenth century, is a form of soft carbon, easily sharpened to a point, which deposits a metallic gray color on a surface, ideal for precise writing and drawing. It was first encased in wood in the mid-sixteenth century, a form now referred to as a pencil. See also plumbago.

grisaille

A monotone, often high-contrast style of drawing or painting rendered entirely in shades of gray, black, and white. Grisaille was implemented by artists such as Thomas Forster working in plumbago, also known as graphite.

ground

An opaque preparatory layer applied to the support, either commercially or by the artist.

guidon

One who carries a heraldic banner, also called a guidon, which was used as to identify the unit and served as a rallying point.

gum arabic

Derived from the sap of the African acacia tree, gum arabic was commonly used to bind watercolor pigments with water. In addition to its use as a binder, miniaturists capitalized on its glossy effect to create areas of highlight with larger quantities of gum. As with ivory, its availability benefited from trade routes that were expanding due to colonialism and the Atlantic slave trade.

hair art

The creation of art from human hair, or “hairwork.” See also Prince of Wales feather.

hairworkers

The individuals who created hair art.

hatched

A technique using closely spaced parallel lines to create a shaded effect. When lines are placed at an angle to one another, the technique is called cross-hatching.

heterochromia

A condition where a person has two differently colored eyes (irises).

Honourable East India Company (HEIC)

A British joint-stock company founded in 1600 to trade in the Indian Ocean region. The company accounted for half the world’s trade from the 1750s to the early 1800s, including items such as cotton, silk, opium, and spices. It later expanded to control large parts of the Indian subcontinent by exercising military and administrative power.

Huguenot

A French Protestant who followed the teachings of John Calvin (1509–1564). Protestantism and particularly Calvinism were strongly opposed by the French Catholic government. Huguenots faced centuries of persecution in France, and the vast majority immigrated to other countries, including Great Britain and Switzerland, by the early eighteenth century. Due to their belief that wealth acquired through honest work was godly, Huguenot refugees in these countries brought with them a strong tradition of skilled artmaking and craftsmanship, particularly in silver and goldsmithing, silk weaving, and watchmaking. See also Edict of Nantes.

hussar

A term used to describe a soldier wearing a uniform modeled after the 15th century Hungarian light cavalry. The brightly colored uniforms typically consisted of a cloth cap, a coat hanging from the left shoulder, and a jacket with multiple rows of lace, or braiding.

impasto

A thick application of paint, often creating texture such as peaks and ridges.

infrared (IR) photography

A form of infrared imaging that employs the part of the spectrum just beyond the red color to which the human eye is sensitive. This wavelength region, typically between 700–1,000 nanometers, is accessible to commonly available digital cameras if they are modified by removal of an IR-blocking filter that is required to render images as the eye sees them. The camera is made selective for the infrared by then blocking the visible light. The resulting image is called a reflected infrared digital photograph. Its value as a painting examination tool derives from the tendency for paint to be more transparent at these longer wavelengths, thereby non-invasively revealing pentimenti, inscriptions, underdrawing lines, and early stages in the execution of a work. The technique has been used extensively for more than a half-century and was formerly accomplished with infrared film.

Interregnum

The Interregnum in England was the intermediary period between the 1649 execution of King Charles I and the beginning of the reign of his son Charles II in 1660, called the Restoration. During the Interregnum, the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell, titled Lord Protector, and later his son Richard, led England as a republic. Their attempt to abolish the monarchy failed with its restoration in 1660.

ivory

The hard white substance originating from elephant, walrus, or narwhal tusks, often used as the support for portrait miniatures.

jabot

An ornamental accessory, typically made of lace or fine linen, which was suspended from the neck of a shirt.

Jacobite Rebellion

Also referred to as the Jacobite Rising of 1745, the Rebellion was an attempt by Charles Edward Stuart to regain the British throne for his father, James Francis Edward Stuart.

jet

Jet is a coal-like, carbonized black fossil or gemstone. Unlike other gems, jet is a mineraloid and not a mineral.

khalat

Khalat, or “robes of honor” in English, denoted a princely gift of three to seven pieces. The seven-piece set included a turban, a long, full-skirted coat called a jamah, a long gown (ka’bah) a close-fitting coat (alkhaliq), an ornamental belt called a kamrband, trousers, a shirt, and a scarf or turban.

lace

Not to be confused with the white knitted fabric found on the trim of civilian wear, military lace is flat, decorative, and frequently used in between buttons on the front of coats. A common feature of light dragoon uniforms.

lady’s favor

Often taking the form of a ribbon or handkerchief, a lady’s favor was gifted to her chosen knight during a joust or other sporting event during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. It had particular resonance under the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, when this chivalric tradition was revived as a sign of the monarch’s favor.

laid paper

One of the two types of paper. Until the mass manufacture of paper began in the mid-eighteenth century, all paper was handmade and quite expensive, as the process was laborious. Linen, cotton, or hemp rags were soaked in vats and stirred until they disintegrated into pulp, which was pressed into a mold consisting of a wooden frame of gridded copper wires; the parallel laid wires were thinner and more closely spaced than the thicker, widely spaced chain wires. The linear impressions made by the laid wires formed what are called laid lines on the finished sheet of paper; the wider lines that cross them are called chain marks. In the late eighteenth century, there were widespread changes in the laid mold structure, and papers produced prior to this time are distinguishable by an accumulation of fibers along the chain lines. The other type of paper is wove paper.

lake pigment

An organic pigment manufactured by precipitating a soluble, natural colorant onto a colorless or white, insoluble, inorganic substrate. Historically, natural colorants were extracted from plants and insects. The substrate is traditionally hydrated aluminum oxide, but other substrates such as chalk (calcium carbonate), clay, or gypsum (calcium sulphate) have also been used.

lawn

A fine, plain-woven textile, typically made of cotton. It is sheer and lightweight with a silky finish. In the seventeenth century, it was commonly used for trimmings like collars, sleeves, and ruffs.

lead white

The most widely used white pigment from Roman times until well into the industrial period, lead white consists of cerussite and/or hydrocerussite, mineral names for neutral lead carbonate and basic lead carbonate, respectively. Plumbonacrite, another basic lead carbonate with proportionately less carbonate than hydrocerussite, can sometimes be found as well. The whitest forms used in painting were historically produced by inducing lead metal to corrode in the presence of vinegar fumes.

leg-of-mutton

A prominent sleeve style, also called a gigot sleeve, mouton sleeve, or mutton sleeve, that was popular during the 1500s, 1830s, 1840s, and 1890s, which resembles the sharply tapered shape of a mutton (mature sheep) leg. It is characterized by a large amount of fullness in the shoulder, which narrows to a closely fitted sleeve at the wrist.

limner

One who limns. See also limning.

limning

“Limning” was derived from the Latin word luminare, meaning to illuminate, and the term also became associated with the Latin miniare, referring to the red lead used in illuminated manuscripts, which were also called limnings. Limning developed as an art form separate from manuscript illumination after the inception of the printing press, when books became more utilitarian and less precious. Eventually limning became associated with other diminutive two-dimensional artworks, such as miniatures, leading to the misnomer that “miniature” refers to the size of the object and not its origins in manuscript illumination. Limning is distinct from painting not only by its medium, with the use of watercolor and vellum traditionally used for manuscript illuminations, but also by the typically small size of such works.

macaroni

A fashionably dressed man who wore a tight suit with rich and colorful textiles.

masquerade

A party or ball in which guests are invited to wear masks and costumes. Held in the winter months, masquerades were among the primary forms of festive entertainment in eighteenth-century England, enabling attendees to subvert and flaunt social convention, if only for a night. Masquerade may also refer to the conventions of disguise, including fashion, used at these events. See also masques.

masques

Masques were a form of festive entertainment held at the courts of Europe in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Elaborately costumed and staged, masques were theatrical performances with music and dancing, typically among the higher-ranking aristocracy and royalty. In England, Henry VIII and, later, Anne of Denmark were famous participants in masques, and Louis XIV of France continued this tradition later in the seventeenth century with court ballets, while eighteenth-century masquerade balls echoed the legacy of this longstanding courtly art form. See also masquerade.

Medici collar

A type of lace-edged collar worn upright behind the head and sloping down to meet a square neckline made popular in the late 1600s and early 1700s by members of the Medici family.

mercer

A cloth merchant, from the French mercier. Mercers typically sold fine fabrics that were imported from abroad.

mob cap

A round, gathered or pleated cloth (usually linen) bonnet to cover the hair, frequently with a ruffled brim and ribbon band.

Modest School

A term coined by art historian Graham Reynolds to describe a group of minor miniaturists working from around 1740 to the late 1770s, whose works are typically under three inches tall.

Mughal mustache

Since the sixteenth-century Mughal empire, a thick handlebar-style mustache that curls upwards at the ends has been worn by Indian men as a symbol of virility and honor as well as the power and status reflected in the mustache’s imperial origins. When British colonial officers began leading Indian troops, many adopted mustaches in an attempt to command their respect.

Napoleonic Wars

A series of major global conflicts fought during Napoleon Bonaparte’s imperial rule over France, from 1805 to 1815.

navette

Boat-shaped jewelry, often seen as rings from the Victoria era. Not to be confused with marquise jewelry, which often describes the shape of the stone and not the setting.

Nawab

A royal title denoting a ruler of a South Asian state, used similarly to the Western title of Prince (of a principality or state). This term was appropriated by the British in its original form to refer to British men, also called “nabobs,” who made their fortune in India, often returning to England to flaunt their newfound wealth and purchase titles and/or seats in Parliament.

neoclassical

Neoclassicism was the rebirth of the Classical style in art and architecture. Inspired by ancient Greek and Roman culture, neoclassicism was initially spurred by the archaeological discoveries of Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy in the 1750s and soon became the predominant visual mode across Europe and North America.

opacifier

An additive that increases the opacity or hiding power of the paint.

Order of the Saint-Esprit

The Order of the Saint-Esprit is the highest French chivalric order, limited to one hundred knights, including members of the royal family, princes of the blood, and foreign princes. Membership was signified by the wearing of a wide blue “riband,” or sash, attached to the Cross of the Holy Spirit. The sash gave its name to the colloquial name for this group, “Les Cordon Bleus” (The Blue Ribbons), which would later be associated with the highest standard of French cuisine.

organic dye

A natural colorant made from complex organic compounds extracted from plants, animals, insects, lichens, and shellfish. As most natural colorants are soluble, they cannot be mixed directly with a binding medium and therefore must be painted directly onto the surface. Organic dyes can be further processed and precipitated onto an inorganic substrate to produce a lake pigment. See also lake pigment.

Orient

A term used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by white Europeans to refer to the Middle East, North Africa, and Asia, places that were imagined to be exotic or mysterious. Orientalism was the representation by white Europeans and often emphasizing the otherness of the cultures, goods, or peoples originating from the East. See also à la turque (turquerie).

ormolu

A gold-colored alloy consisting of copper, zinc, and tin.

palmette

A motif originating in ancient Egyptian designs that resembles the fan-shaped leaves of a palm tree.

papillote iron

A tong-shaped curling iron with flat ends. After heating with hot coals, sections of pomaded hair were curled around one’s finger and wrapped with a sheet of triangular tissue paper. The curl was then compressed with the flattened, heated tips of the papillote iron to create the desired effect, a fashionable corkscrew curl.

Parliamentary

During the English Civil War (1642–1651), the Parliamentary cause was embraced by opponents of absolute monarchy who sought to depose King Charles I and later executed him.

parure

Set of jewels intended to be worn together.

pastel

A type of drawing stick made from finely ground pigments or other colorants (dyes), fillers (often ground chalk), and a small amount of a polysaccharide binder (gum arabic or gum tragacanth). While many artists made their own pastels, during the nineteenth century, pastels were sold as flat sticks, pointed sticks encased in tightly wound paper wrappers, or as wood-encased pencils. Pastels can be applied dry, dampened, or wet, and they can be manipulated with a variety of tools, including paper stumps, chamois cloth, brushes, or fingers. Pastel can also be ground and applied as a powder or mixed with water to form a paste. Pastel is a friable media, meaning that it is powdery or crumbles easily. To overcome this difficulty, artists have used a variety of fixatives to prevent image loss.

pauldron

A piece of metal plate armor that protects the shoulder, upper arm, and underarm area.

Peninsular War

A conflict fought from 1808 to 1814 in the Iberian Peninsula, where the British Army, aided by Spanish and Portuguese allies, defeated the invading forces of Napoleon’s France.

pentimento

From the Italian for “repentance,” a pentimento or pentiment, plural pentimenti, is an area revealing an element of the composition that has been moved or removed from the final composition. This is typically seen in underdrawing or elements hidden beneath added layers of paint, called overpaint. Pentimenti can be revealed by thinning layers of paint over time, or through the course of technical analysis with methods like x-radiographs or infrared reflectography.

peruke

Also called a periwig, a type of man’s wig often made of human or synthetic hair that was popular in the 1600s and 1700s.

philtrum

The vertical groove between the base of the nose and the border of the upper lip.

photomicrographs

A photograph taken with the aid of a microscope.

physiognomy

The pseudoscientific study of facial or body features, which were believed to reveal psychological traits.

picot

A decorative fabric edge made up of a series of loops.

pigment

A dry coloring substance typically of mineral or organic origins until the nineteenth century, when they began to be artificially manufactured. Pigments were ground into powder form by the artist, their workshop assistants, or by the vendor they acquired the pigment from, before being mixed with a binder and liquid, such as water. Pigments vary in granulation and solubility.

piping

An edge formed by sewing a thin strip of fabric onto a garment. Piping typically defines or reinforces the material.

plumbago

An archaic term for graphite used by seventeenth-century artists. It originates from the Latin word for lead, plumbum. See also graphite.

pointillism

A technique of painting using tiny dots of pure colors, which when seen from a distance are blended by the viewer’s eye. It was developed by French Neo-Impressionist painters in the mid-1880s as a means of producing luminous effects. The technique of some earlier miniatures has been compared to pointillism by scholars like Nathalie Lemoine-Bouchard due to the technique of careful, distinct stippling to apply watercolor to ivory.

point lace

Primarily manufactured in Venice, France, and Flanders, point lace was a highly sought after and costly export in the early modern period. Also called needlepoint lace, it is named for the point of the single needle which was used to make it, in contrast to lace made with bobbins.

polarized light microscopy (PLM)

A method used for the study and differentiation of pigments based on the optical properties of individual particles, including color, refractive index, birefringence, etc. PLM is particularly useful in identifying the presence of organic pigments such as indigo and Prussian blue, which often cannot be differentiated from paint medium in the scanning electron microscopy (SEM); differentiating synthetic pigments from their natural analogs by particle shape or the presence of extraneous mineral matter; and disclosing the presence of pigments with similar composition but differing color, such as red and yellow iron oxides.

Prince of Wales feather

Prince of Wales feathers were among the period’s more difficult types of hair manipulation, accomplished with the use of multiple curling irons, candle flame, needles, camel-hair brushes, adhesive (gum tragacanth), and weights. See also hair art.

queue

The long curl of a wig.

quizzing glass

An early form of eyeglasses, a quizzing glass was a single magnifying lens on a handle, allowing the wearer to better view things up close. The glass usually hung around an individual’s neck by a long ribbon or chain.

rake

Short for rakehell, meaning hellraiser, a rake was an upper-class man known for his immoral behaviors, with a reputation for drinking, gambling, and womanizing.

Raman spectroscopy

A microanalytical technique applicable primarily to pigments and minerals, differentiating them based on both chemical bonding and crystal structure, often with extremely high sensitivity for individual particles. For example, traditional indigo and synthetic phthalocyanine blue are both carbon compounds not well differentiated by other methods utilized here, especially when used dilutely. However, they give unique Raman spectra. Calcium carbonates derived from chalk or pulverized oyster shell of identical chemical compositions can be differentiated based on their crystal structures (calcite and aragonite, respectively).

Rear-Admiral of the White

A senior rank of the Royal Navy. The order of precedence, from lowest to highest, went: Rear-Admiral of the Blue, Rear-Admiral of the White, Rear-Admiral of the Red, Vice-Admiral of the Blue, Vice-Admiral of the White, Vice-Admiral of the Red, Admiral of the Blue, Admiral of the White, Admiral of the Red, and then Admiral of the Fleet.

recto

Front or main side of a double-sided object, such as a drawing or miniature.

Regency

Part of the Georgian era, when King George III’s son ruled as his proxy, dating from approximately 1811 until 1820.

regicide

The act of killing a king, or a person with some role in the death of a king, as in the case of the executions of King Charles I of England and King Louis XVI of France, which were both decided by vote. Anyone who voted for the death of the king, in addition to the actual executioners, was considered a regicide.

retouching

Paint application by a conservator or restorer to cover losses and unify the original composition. Retouching is an aspect of conservation treatment that is aesthetic in nature and that differs from more limited procedures undertaken solely to stabilize original material. Sometimes referred to as inpainting or retouch.

ribbon

Sometimes spelled “riband,” a ribbon is a wide sash worn across the body from one hip to the opposite shoulder to designate the wearer’s membership in an order of merit or chivalry. The color and direction of the ribbon varies depending on the particular order.

right of denization

An obsolete process in England and Ireland similar to permanent residency, by which a foreign resident could obtain letters patent from the monarch to become a “denizen.”

robber baron

American industrialists who attained astronomical fortunes by unscrupulous means during the later nineteenth century, an era called the Gilded Age (1870–1900). This period was defined by its materialism, corruption, and the growing divide between those living with tremendous wealth and abject poverty.

robber baron hair

An idiomatic term that refers to the thick plait of braided hair that was often added to the back of the case of a miniature when it was repackaged for sale in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These miniatures were frequently marketed to the so-called “robber baron” collectors, Gilded Age industrialists like J.P. Morgan, who collected portrait miniatures at a large scale and, in general, liked their purchases to appear tidy and complete. Although many original portrait miniatures do not contain hair mementos, some buyers expected them to be included. See also hair art.

rolled and whipped hem

A sewing technique that involves rolling the edge of a fabric and making stitches directly below the roll.

rouge

A powder or cream cosmetic used for coloring cheeks or lips red.

Roundheads

A colloquial, initially derogatory term for members of the Parliamentary party during the English Civil War (1642–1651), led by Oliver Cromwell, who fought to overthrow the absolute monarchy of King Charles I. Roundheads were named for the men’s closely cropped hair, which was worn in opposition to the long wigs worn by adherents of the aristocratic Royalist party, reflecting the Roundheads’ objections to the Royalists’ pro-monarchy views. See also Parliamentary, Royalist.

Royal Academy of the Arts

A London-based gallery and art school founded in 1768 by a group of artists and architects.

Royalist

A supporter of monarchy or specific monarchs. In the context of the English Civil War (1642–1651), Royalists supported the absolute monarchy of King Charles I, who fought against the Parliamentary armies of Oliver Cromwell to protect the king and his divine right to rule. See also Parliamentary, Roundheads.

ruched

Fabric that is gathered together to create a ripple-like effect.

ruff

A pleated collar, starched and worn around the neck.

Salon, the

Exhibitions organized by the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture) and its successor the Academy of Fine Arts (Académie des Beaux Arts), which took place in Paris from 1667 onward.

sanguine

A reddish-brown color, so-called because its color resembles dried blood.

sausage curls

Hair shaped into fashionable ringlets resembling sausages.

Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (SEM-EDS)

A combined technique that uses a scanning electron microscope and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy to analyze materials. Performed on a microsample of paint, the SEM provides a means of studying particle shapes beyond the magnification limits of the light microscope. The SEM is routinely used in conjunction with an X-ray spectrometer so that elemental identifications can be made selectively on the same minute scale as the electron beam producing the images. SEM methods are particularly valuable in studying unstable pigments, adverse interactions between incompatible pigments, and interactions between pigments and surrounding paint medium, all of which can have profound effects on the appearance of a painting.

scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Performed on a microsample of paint, the SEM provides a means of studying particle shapes beyond the magnification limits of the light microscope. This becomes increasingly important with the painting materials introduced in the early modern era, which are finer and more diverse than traditional artists’ materials. The SEM is routinely used in conjunction with an X-ray spectrometer, so that elemental identifications can be made selectively on the same minute scale as the electron beam producing the images. SEM methods are particularly valuable in studying unstable pigments, adverse interactions between incompatible pigments, and interactions between pigments and surrounding paint medium, all of which can have profound effects on the appearance of a painting.

Serjeant-at-Law

Sometimes abbreviated as a Serjeant, a Serjeant-at-Law (SL) were members of an order of English and Irish barristers.

Seven Years’ War

The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that arose from unresolved issues from the War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748). The French and English hostilities ended in 1763 with the Treaty of Paris.

sfumato

In Italian, meaning “evaporated like smoke.” A soft, smoky blending effect used to create imperceptible translations from light to shaded areas and between colors in an artwork.

sgraffito

In Italian, meaning “scratched,” an art technique consisting of scratching through layers of paint.

shell gold

Shell gold was prepared by miniaturists in advance of painting in a multistep process. First, gold leaf was ground into a fine powder and mixed with honey. Water and a binder, such as gum arabic, were then added to make it paintable. Once applied to the surface with a brush, the shell gold was burnished with a weasel’s tooth to make it shine. Because gold leaf was costly, it was sparingly used, even with miniatures, for jewelry and accents on clothing. Its name was derived from the mussel shells in which it was traditionally stored.

shell silver

A costly watercolor paint made from silver powder mixed with gum arabic. It was used for gilding decorative surfaces in portrait miniatures, paintings, manuscripts, and decorative tooling on book bindings.

shirt points

Shirt collars that are starched and point up towards the face, typically resting along the jaw line. A cravat is then tied around the shirt points.

side buckle

A tightly rolled curl of hair set to the side of an eighteenth-century hairstyle or wig, from the French word boucle, or loop.

snuff

Smokeless tobacco that is made from finely ground tobacco leaves.

Spanish Armada

A naval fleet launched in spring 1588 by the Catholic King Philip II of Spain to sail up the English Channel, invade England, and overthrow Queen Elizabeth I in order to reinstate a Catholic monarch on the throne. The Armada, which was generally thought to be invincible, was soundly defeated by the smaller but more agile English navy at the Battle of Gravelines on August 8, 1588. George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland, brought Queen Elizabeth the news of England’s victory over Spain.

stays

A stiff, boned undergarment typically worn by women and occasionally men to provide shape and support.

stippling

Producing a gradation of light and shade by drawing or painting small points, larger dots, or longer strokes.

stock

A type of neckwear, often black or white, worn by men in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

stock (military)

A stiff leather collar worn by military men that fastened at the back. It was originally intended to protect the neck from battle wounds, but it also forced good, erect posture.

style troubadour

A style of French historical painting, fashion, and decorative art that evoked a nostalgic, romanticized medieval past in an age of revolutionary upheaval.

sublime

The eighteenth-century notion of the sublime was first defined by Edmund Burke, who described terror as its “ruling principle” triggered by extremes. The sublime challenged the rational and scientifically ordered conception of the world championed by Enlightenment philosophers. Poets and artists saw nature as a gateway to the overwhelming sensation of the sublime. They sought the sublime in severe weather, immense and awe-inspiring landscapes, and natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions.

Sun King

Louis XIV named himself the Sun King, or le Roi Soleil, at the beginning of his reign in 1643. The choice of the sun, emblem of the god Apollo, as his personal symbol broadcast his desire to be celebrated as a supporter of the arts and a propagator of peace after the conclusion of a destructive civil war, the Fronde. Above all, it proclaimed the king the source of all life and established his eternal control over nature, through his daily rising and setting.

surcoat

A loose outer garment worn over a shift or underdress as the external layer.

table-book leaf

Table-book leaves were used as a support for miniature portraits in the seventeenth century. Table-books, also called writing tables, were used as almanacs or in mercantile settings as reusable notebooks or tablets. Table-books were bound with leaves of card coated with gesso on both sides and then varnished. The gesso could be wiped clean and written on again. Miniaturists glued sheets of vellum to individual table-book leaves as a sturdy support or substrate for portrait miniatures. See also card/prepared card, vellum.

ton

From the French phrase, le bon ton, meaning etiquette, good manners, or good form, it also corresponds to high society in England during the late Regency era and the reign of King George IV. See also Regency.

trompe l’oeil

An art technique that tricks the eye, using realistic imagery to create the illusion of a three-dimensional object.

turnover

A piece of white linen, typically half an inch deep, that folds over an officer’s stock. See also stock (military).

undress

The opposite of a full-dress uniform. A working uniform with little decoration, for a more comfortable feel and casual appearance.

Van Dyck collar

The V-shaped collars seen in many of Sir Anthony Van Dyck’s (Flemish, 1599–1641) portraits. See also Van Dyck dress.

Van Dyck dress

A style of dress inspired by the portraits of seventeenth-century Flemish painter Anthony van Dyck (1599–1641).

vanitas

A work of art that symbolizes the fleeting nature of life, the inevitability of death, and the ephemerality of beauty. Typical motifs include musical instruments, bubbles, hourglasses, flowers, fruit, and butterflies.

vellum

A fine parchment made of calfskin. A thin sheet of vellum was typically mounted with paste on a playing card or similar card support. See also table-book leaf.

verso

Back or reverse side of a double-sided object, such as a drawing or miniature.

War of the Spanish Succession

Fought from 1701–1714, the War of the Spanish Succession saw European monarchs fighting to claim the Spanish throne of King Charles II, who had died without issue.

watercolor

A sheer water-soluble paint prized for its luminosity, applied in a wash to light-colored surfaces such as vellum, ivory, or paper. Pigments are usually mixed with water and a binder such as gum arabic to prepare the watercolor for use. See also gum arabic.

Whig

Initially forming in England as a political faction and then as a party, Whigs supported a parliamentary system and espoused ideals of liberalism and economic protectionism. Their opposing party were the Tories.

widow’s weeds

Garments, typically black, and comprising a veil, dress, and other accessories worn by widows during a period of mourning.

wove paper

One of the two types of paper. Wove papers may be either machine or handmade, and are produced from molds that have a woven wire mesh. The weave of the mesh can be so tight that it produces no visible pattern within the paper sheet, and often wove papers have a smoother surface than laid papers. Wove papers were developed during the mid-eighteenth century, but did not come into widespread use until later. The other type of paper is laid paper.

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry elemental mapping (MA-XRF) or XRF elemental mapping

A non-destructive technique that entails collecting thousands of X-ray fluorescence spectra at regular intervals across a painting to build an alternate set of images depicting the locations and amounts of different elements. Although the information is fundamentally the same as measurements gathered from a single-point XRF, the graphical nature of the result is often a more powerful technique for understanding trends in an artist’s use of materials. The high number of spectra allows statistical manipulations of the elemental information to locate correlations between different pigments that would not be possible from a small number of tests. For example, the consistent occurrence of mercury along with chromium, and iron along with copper, could show that vermilion was used to mute the chrome green and red ocher was similarly employed in a mixture that includes emerald green. The resulting correlation maps then serve to show where the two cases occur in the composition. MA-XRF can also reveal preliminary paint applications that became covered as the composition was completed, thereby disclosing aspects of the painter’s method.